Wetlands lie in flat vegetated areas, in depressions in the landscape, and between dry land and water along the edges of streams, rivers, lakes and coastlines.¹¹ Most people in the U.S. live near a wetland, but they may be very small and only occasionally hold standing water.¹⁴ Hydrologists group wetlands as precipitation dominated, surface-water dominated and groundwater dominated. While precipitation-dominated wetlands receive most of their water from precipitation, they are also fed by surface run-on. Water leaves these areas by evaporation, evapotranspiration, surface runoff, groundwater seepage and subsurface flow. In surface-water dominated wetlands, the water arrives from surface run-on, stream overflow, rainfall and groundwater discharge. It leaves by stream discharge, evaporation, evapotranspiration, surface runoff and subsurface flow. Groundwater-dominated wetlands, the least common, are dominated by fens, i.e., where groundwater is discharged by means such as springs. These areas come by their water from groundwater discharge, rainfall, and surface run-on and lose it by means of stream discharge, evaporation, evapotranspiration and surface flow.¹⁴

The water depth here varies from three to six feet. Cattails and willows grow in the shallower depths. The deeper waters allow for sediment deposit and habitat for diving ducks.

Flora and Fauna

Wetlands flora and fauna is diverse, but wetland loss has endangered many species and made some extinct. Wetland species such as the bald cypress, tupelo, duckweed, water lilies, wild rice and cranberries help filter and control water and soil. Birds use wetlands as rest stops along migration routes, as breeding grounds, or for permanent habitat. These species include bald eagles, American white pelican, green herons, great blue herons, yellow warblers, wood ducks ring-necked ducks, green-winged teal ducks, American black ducks and gadwall.⁹ Beavers, hares, muskrats, mink, alligator snapping turtles, American alligators, fishing spiders, and in the everglades the last of North American panthers call wetlands home. Bacteria, crustaceans, algae and fungus also inhabit wetlands. Unseen species, such as zooplankton, are important inhabitants of wetlands, providing nutrients for plants and animals and breaking down waste and pollution.⁷

This small wetland area is the newest and highest elevation on the property. The dyke here is threatened by a muskrat infestation. Burrowing muskrats and weasels can easily compromise the dyke.

Adaptive Restoration

It is a difficult task to understand such a complex system, let alone create and manage one. There are many considerations?EUR??,,????'?????<14

It is suggested that adaptive restoration be employed.¹⁶ Adaptive restoration refers to making a best first attempt and continuing changes of species, water levels, positions and water sources as conditions dictate. A general and very important aspect of wetland design is maximizing water retention time, which can be achieved by directing water in a meandering path. This slows the water, allowing sediment and pollution deposits, creating a variety of potential habitats, and helping mitigate erosion downstream. The largest drawback to an increased retention time is a loss of storage capacity. You can add storage capacity by increasing surface area or by creating deeper pools, thus allowing larger volumes for storage and treatment. This, however, also potentially limits habitat space.

The smallest wetland near the edge of the property receives nitrogen-rich run-on from fertilized farm land, which propagates an algae overload.

Banks should be gently sloped with mild fluctuations to maximize seed beds, create diverse habitat and improve aesthetics. Open water should be kept to less than 20 percent of surface area, which again creates more habitat and of a greater diversity.¹⁴ These alterations do create many benefits but should be weighed against the need to minimize re-grading and the building of dykes and levees.

The topography beneath the surface can greatly alter key characteristics. Altering elevations by as little as 10 cm can create enough change to allow some species to flourish and others to fade. Texture, or microtopography, of the bottom surface can slow the flow of water, which traps more sediment. In the shallows, the reduced water speed helps to warm the water, promoting the growth of microorganisms, especially beneficial near agricultural areas that use nitrogen-based fertilizers.

Birds use wetlands as rest stops along migration routes, as breeding grounds, or for permanent habitat, including bald eagles, American white pelican, green herons, great blue herons, yellow warblers, wood ducks ring-necked ducks, green-winged teal ducks, American black ducks and gadwalls. These migrating snow geese are near the Cache River Basin. In January 2003, the Bush administration ordered ?EUR??,,????'?????<4

Many situations require altering soil conditions. Soil amendments provide suitable amounts of organic matter and nutrients. Areas that have lost soil due to gravel removal and other mining operations may benefit from transplanted soil, but this should be done with great care since foreign soils may harbor deleterious seeds, insects or microorganisms.

Deeper waters encourage waterfowl use and fish habitation while shallower waters are best for plants and microorganisms.¹⁶

Selection of flora should be made with care, as plants are the most visible and dominant aspect of wetlands. Possible plant research might include visiting local natural wetlands and/or successfully developed wetlands. Observations should be made of plant species, depth and depth control measures, planting strategies (from seed or plugs) and planting locations. Nurseries and landscape design professionals are also excellent sources.

There are eight acres of wetland and about six bodies of water on the Shaffer property that rely solely on run-on. The location for the largest body of water (pictured), which now covers about five acres, was selected for its soil hydrology and because it required the least amount of grading and the smallest dyke (five feet tall). The wet side of the dyke has a slope of 6:1, which allows for ample plant bed and safe access for maintenance. The dry side of the dyke has a slope of 4:1, allowing for safe mowing and seeding. The dyke was seeded with nursery winter wheat to help stabilize soils and prevent erosion. Fescue was broadcast at about the same time.

The Shaffer Wetlands

Landscape architect Dave Shaffer and biologist Liz Shaffer are residents of Southern Illinois who have undertaken the challenge of restoring wetlands on their property, part of the upper Cache River watershed, a World Heritage site for its unique tupelo cypress swamp.

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Shaffer got involved with the U.S. Department of Agriculture?EUR??,,????'?????<

The creek that runs through Shaffer property receives the property?EUR??,,????'?????<

On the Shaffer property there are eight acres of wetland and about six bodies of water that rely solely on run-on.⁸ The largest body of water covers about five acres. It became a matter of finding a location on the property that would require the least amount of re-grading and the smallest dyke. Heavy equipment was brought to build a dyke to a height of five feet. The wet side of the dyke has a slope of 5 or 6:1 which is an appropriate slope for all wetland banks since it allows for ample plant bed as well as providing safe access for maintenance, such as mowing and pest control. The dry side of the dyke has a slope of 4:1, allowing for safe mowing and seeding.

The dyke was seeded by broadcasting a nurse crop of winter wheat to help stabilize soils and prevent erosion and to allow for permanent plant species seed protection. Winter wheat was used because of its short germination time. Fescue was broadcast at about the same time. Fescue was used because of its hardiness and thick root system, which once grown, adds much durability to banks and dykes, though it offers little habitat for animals. Native local plant species took hold quickly and little planting was required for water inundated areas. The water ranges in depths of three to six feet. The shallower depths allow for cattail, willows and other similar species. The deeper waters allow for sediment deposit and habitat for diving ducks.

This stream from a smaller wetland feeds the largest wetland and sustains a small bog.

Maintenance is a constant concern for the Shaffers, as they discover the Wetland Reserve Program provides money only for new construction, not maintenance. It falls on the Shaffers to pay for all maintenance and repairs. The costs of their wetlands are forcing them to consider, as Dave says, ?EUR??,,????'?????<

Invasive species are also a maintenance concern. The Asiatic carp and kudzu are definite threats, but the largest native pests, like the muskrat and weasel often burrow, which can severely weaken the dyke. Beavers block incoming waters and create debris. Cattails and willows choke out other species and dominate, limiting habitat and food sources. It is a continuous battle to keep cattails to a minimum, but it is an absolute necessity.

The view of the north end of the highest wetland shows water levels near a seasonal high. Open water in wetlands should be kept to less than 20 percent of surface area, which creates more habitat and of a greater diversity.¹⁴

The Good and the Bad

Wetlands help keep our waters clean, give shelter to migrating birds and many endangered animals, create habitat for fish, wildlife and plants, contain and store flood waters and storm surge, and provide surface flow during dry times.¹² The gentle flow of wetlands water leaves sediment and other suspended matter as it passes around and through plants. Wetlands can be so effective at pollution and sediment removal that they can be used to treat stormwater and wastewater.¹²

An acre of wetlands can retain up to 1.5 million gallons of floodwater. The dense vegetation slows ?EUR??,,????'?????<12 A Corps of Engineers study showed wetlands along the Charles River in Massachusetts helped to save the community $17 million by simply protecting the wetlands and allowing them to exist.¹²

Our nation?EUR??,,????'?????<11 Recreation and aesthetics are also part of the monetary value of wetlands. ?EUR??,,????'?????<11 Wetlands provide food for us and for the myriad of animals that inhabit or use these areas. Man-made wetlands create habitat for migratory birds and waterfowl, helping them maintain breeding populations.⁹

This wetland in front of the Shaffer home exhibits islands.

A very conservative estimate puts global sea level at 20 cms higher by 2080. A more accepted number puts global sea level at a one meter rise by the end of the century, which would eliminate 46 percent of the world?EUR??,,????'?????<16 In agricultural regions, drainage is the main cause of loss. Draining can release chemicals and gases trapped by peat, other plant matter and soil. Once released these agents can cause human irritation and destroy water habitats downstream.¹⁶ Pollution is one universal danger for all wetlands.

The Bad Doesn?EUR??,,????'?????<

The Clean Water Act of 1972 was a response to the horrid conditions of the nation?EUR??,,????'?????<13 However, a policy shift and legal precedent over the last seven years puts many of our most vulnerable wetlands and us at risk. A 2001 Supreme Court decision removed protection from thousands of wetlands used by migrating birds. The decision stated the Clean Water Act was being applied too broadly.¹³ On Earth Day 2004, the same administration announced plans to save three million acres of wetlands, but in January 2003 ordered ?EUR??,,????'?????<4 In November 2004, the Fish and Wildlife Service disclosed plans to protect 33 endangered species and 740,000 acres (less than half of what FWS biologists recommended) of vernal pools in California. The plan is estimated to cost $2.1 billion over the next 60 years. This plan is entirely voluntary and will have to be funded by conservation groups and private developers; again, the government is leaving the protection of our waters to private developers.² Mitigation banking is another threat that poses severe risk to wetlands and waterways.

This drained wetland north of the largest wetland is the result of dyke failure. Maintenance is a constant concern for the Shaffers. The Wetland Reserve program provides money only for new construction, not maintenance. It falls on the Shaffers to pay for all maintenance and repairs. Dykes are the most costly maintenance, as they require large amounts of material and large equipment.

This program allows persons to apply for permits to fill wetlands. These applications are made under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. This form of dumping allows for the purchase of credits in other wetlands. ?EUR??,,????'?????<4 Wetlands restoration is a good thing, but as one of America?EUR??,,????'?????<2

In July of 2006, another Supreme Court decision caused severe damage to environmental protection. The decision makes possible the development of most wetlands and streams, such as wetlands that are not directly abutting navigable waterways as well as nonperennial streams, wet meadows, and arroyos (60 percent of total stream miles in the U.S. are nonperennial).²⁰

This is looking north to the east side of the drained wetland. The costs of their wetlands are forcing the Shaffers to consider, as Dave says, ?EUR??,,????'?????<

Reestablishing the Protections

Damage has been done and we must now look forward to reestablishing the protections once offered by the Clean Water Act. That may mean new legislation, a new cabinet position, renewed budgets, or policies that will encourage and provide help to people such as the Schaffers. We can be certain that it means a major outcry and commitment from the public. Let us not forget that it is an elected government fulfilling its electorate?EUR??,,????'?????<

As discouraging as it is, if our world is to ever be as magnificent as it once was or even as it is now we must act and act quickly. Time is not on our side and we must remember that it is our responsibility to understand these systems, recognize their importance, leave them unaltered when possible, restore them where applicable, and create them where we can.

Open water should be kept to less than 20 percent of the surface area, which creates more habitat and more diversity. An excavated channel dug through a failing dyke expedites drainage of this section of the wetland.

Works Citied

1. The Bush Record. National Resources Defense Council, May 2, 2007 nrdc.org/bushrecord/water_wetlands.asp.
2. Callicott, J. Baird. ?EUR??,,????'?????<
3. Clean Water & Wetlands. Sierra Club. May 2, 2007 https://sierraclub.org/wetlands/resources/mitigation.asp.
4. Hansson, Lars-Anders, et al. ?EUR??,,????'?????<
5. High Court Returns Wetlands Cases to Lower Court, Agrees to Hear Abortion Appeal. 19 June 2006. The Online News Hour. PBS. May 2, 2007 pbs.org/newshour/updates/law/jan-june06/scotus_06-19.html.
6. Meagher, John W. ?EUR??,,????'?????<
7. Schoenberg, Steven A. ?EUR??,,????'?????<
8. Shaffer, Dave. Personal interview. 28 Apr. 2007.
9. Stevens, C.E., T. S. Gabor, and A. W. Diamond. ?EUR??,,????'?????<
10. Troubled Waters. Dec. 20, 2002. NOW with Bill Moyers. PBS. May 2, 2007 pbs.org/now/science/wetlands.html.
11. United States. Environmental Protection Agency. America?EUR??,,????'?????<
12. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Wetlands Overview. Feb. 22, 2006. Apr. 6, 2007. epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/overview.pdf.
13. van der Valk, Arnold G. ?EUR??,,????'?????<
14. Wetland Hydrology. North Carolina State University. March 29, 2007. https://bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension/wqg/workshop/watershed_ppts.htm.
15. Wolfson, Lois, Del Mokma, Ger Schultink, and Eckhart Dersch. ?EUR??,,????'?????<
16. Zedler, Joy B. and Suzanne Kercher. ?EUR??,,????'?????<
17. Zellmer, Sandra. ?EUR??,,????'?????<